Historical Perspectives In Kinesiology

Historical Perspectives In Kinesiology Why We Study Kinesiology. As one of the most innovative and exciting areas in the health care field, muscle testing through kinesiology has given professionals feedback tools to identify multiple aspects of human movement ranging from injury cause and rehabilitation to sports performance. Just think for a moment about how bicycle designs or helmets have changed in the past 10-20 years. Much is this is due to the study of kinesiology. To comprehensively understand human movement, we must approach the topic from a comprehensive point of view which means a physiological, biomechanical, psychological, and sociological perspective. However, in studying kinesiology not only will you begin to understand how and why we move, but gain knowledge on how we can optimize the human potential for movement and skilled performance, the use of different materials and fabrics, and the role of body balance for overall movement health. Kinesiology is a way of studying human movement from two perspectives; theoretical and applied. Each day we accomplish a variety of skills and tasks by calling on a vast array of motor skills. We drive cars, ride bicycles, paint houses, and type of keyboards. All of these skills are studied within the field of kinesiology. Tools are designed and redesigned, hockey sticks are made from new materials, cars are redesigned with more aerodynamics, and your armchair is home if more ergonomically built. To do any and all of these things we must consider the body and how it moves. Unconsciously, we select the muscles which are going to be most effective for the task at hand. The more we are able to recruit muscle groups, the more effective and stronger we become at performing that skill and movement. Moreover, the kinesiology repertoire is not limited to sports and human activities. The field covers everywhere from the study of movement to the anatomical aspects of humans and athletes, and b ecause biomechanics affects all aspects of our daily function, the field of study extends far beyond sports performance. This book focuses on human biomechanics which focuses mainly on humans involved in movement, sports and exercise. We might define sports and exercise biomechanics as the study of forces and their effects on humans in exercise and sport. As we have defined previously, kinesiology is the study of human movement. Kinesiology is the study referring to the whole area of human movement Included in this field is the study of biomechanics, or the study of motion. Kinesiology and Sports Biomechanics overlap to provide you with the knowledge you need to understand the mechanical aspects involved in everyday movements and also the techniques of sports. In both situations, similar questions arise, such as; why is this technique working better than the other ones I have tried? and Would my performance be enhanced if I fine-tuned a certain skill? Studying kinesiology will also allow you to know how and where to find answers to these questions. And in answering these questions you will be using biomechanics to improve your performance both in everyday life and perhaps more directly, your athletic skills and ability. An example of some questions the knowledgeable biomechanist might answer include the following: What is the safest way to lift and move this heavy object? What movement is the most economical? And is it possible to judge this based on visual observation? At what distance should a ball be thrown for maximum power? What change in body mechanics can be made to increase stability in the elderly? What allows some individuals to carry out a specific task while others are unable to perform the very same task? These questions provide a foundation for indentifying, analyzing and solving problems related to human movement. Regardless of the questions asked, investigations and experiments in the kinesiology and biomechanics field are leading us to design products and address problems in everyday life and sports. However, kinesiology is by no means a modern day science. Mechanics and forces in human work have long been studied in many walks of life ranging from transport, to battles to buildings. This is quite evident historically if you consider structures like the Pyramids, the great castles of medieval times, carts and horses for travel and of course bicycles. Therefore, history is rich with individual contributions to this field. I think you will be surprised to see of the great names of artists, designers, and craftsmen who have made instrumental contributions to the field and are therefore part of the great collection of kinesiologists in history. Understanding the Historical Development and Contributions in Kinesiology Kinesiology is a combination of the Greek word kinein (to move) and logos (discourse). Its long history spans the lives of Archimedes (287-212 BC), Galen (131-201 AD, deemed the father of sports medicine), Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Newton, on up to modern times and Dr. George Goodhart, who brought into our language the concept of Applied Kinesiology in 1964. Kinesiology is regarded as both an art form and a science; it is regarded as a science because it has rules, methods, principles and logical techniques while it also involves intuitions, feelings and practice which also make it an art form. Within the history of kinesiology much of the context consists of the history of sport biomechanics. The origin of kinesiology was first used in the 19th century, but it wasnt until the 1960s that biomechanics evolved as a more structured discipline and became popular. However, as aforementioned, the origins of kinesiology can be traced back thousands of years to ancient Roman Times and the gladiators and chariot races. One of the earliest works of exercise and sport biomechanics appeared in 1912 in The Baseball Magazine. This article described a study analyzing the pitching speed of a professional pitcher by the name of Walter Johnson. Following the publication of this article, the field and research of sport biomechanics truly began and a host of other studies in sports such as swimming, cycling and track and field began to appear. The start of the 1930s introduced the use of video cameras in filming and analyzing skills of sport. With the use of this technology, biomechanists were able to slow down the activity and look more intently at the athletes techniques and therefore, could more specifically make the necessary adjustments to positively enhance the performance. A perusal through the history books will show a noticeable improvement in world records for many sports in the 1950s-1960s. The technology that was developed for World War II soon carried over into other disciplines, and sports was o ne of these areas. It wasnt until the 1960s that the actual term and involvement in biomechanics research really started to become popular. In this decade came the introduction of the first Biomechanics seminar with the beginning of newly published Biomechanics Journals published and presented at these conferences. In the 1970s and 1980s, many biomechanics organizations were formed and there was an increase in the number of publications of sport biomechanics journals. The field of study has continued to increase rapidly over the past few decades. However, while great strides have been in recent decades, much foundation work was already laid. It is important to note and recognize these individuals who made marked contributions to the field. Not only is it important to recognize these accomplishments but also to put into context the rich history of kinesiology. Great Kinesiologists in History Aristotle (384-322 BC) Aristotle is known as The Father of Kinesiology. In fact, he is pretty much considered the first biomechanist. He was the first to describe the actions of muscles in his first book on the Parts of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Progression of Animals. He was the first to subject animals to geometric analysis and then document their findings. He viewed animal bodies as mechanical systems and researched the physiological differences between imagining the performance of an action and actually carrying out that same action. Furthermore, he described the various conditions and problems of moving and pushing a boat; which was a precursor to Newtons Laws of Motion. It was Aristotle, who also was the first to describe and analyze the movements of walking, explaining the transformation of a rotary movement to translatory movements. These describe the general motions of the body from an initial position to a final position. The rotary movement consists of one point of a bone remaining stati onary with all other anatomical points tracing an arc or circle around this stable point. Translatory motion, or pure linear, motion is the movement of an entire object occurring at all points on that particular object and includes all points moving the same distance. With the introduction of basic studies focusing on both animal and human biomechanics, Aristotle raised the importance and application of biomechanics to the musculoskeletal system and has led us to a better understanding of both joint function and dysfunction, resulting in design improvements in human motion structure and performance. Archimedes (287-212 BC) Following Aristotle was another renowned Greek scientist. Archimedes (287-212 BC) discovered hydrostatic principles governing floating bodies, which are widely applied today in all areas of aquatics, especially swimming. Archimedes also investigated the laws of leverage and determination of the center of gravity and buoyancy. In physics, buoyancy is the upward force on an object produced by the surrounding fluid in which it is partially immersed, due to the pressure difference of the fluid between the top and bottom of the object. In his treatise On Floating Bodies, Archimedes writes about the hydrostatic principle, or the Archimedes Principle, as it is more commonly known. This principle states that the body when immersed in a fluid will experience a buoyancy force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. In other words, when a body is partially or fully immersed into a fluid (i.e. a liquid or a gas), then it will experience that upward buoyant force which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the immersed part of the body. Although Archimedes didnt invent the lever, he wrote one of the earliest known explanations of the principle involved, and he did design the standard block and pulley system which allowed the use of the principle of leverage to lift objects that would have been too heavy to move. In the first part of his treatise, On Floating Bodies, Archimedes describes his law of equilibrium of fluids and demonstrates that water will in fact adapt to a spherical form around a center of gravity. It has been said to be an early attempt to explain the theory that the Earth is round. In his second volume On the Equilibrium of Planes, Archimedes stated his Law of the Lever. In this Law he explains that Equal weights at equal distances are in equilibrium, and equal weights at unequal distances are not in equilibrium but incline towards the weight which is at the greatest distance. It was with the use of these principles that he derived to calculate the centers of gravity of various geometric figures. His contributions continue to guide modern day mechanics and the study of levers. Research Note: EUREKA! I have found it. This term is most famously attributed to the ancient Greek scholar Archimedes; he reportedly proclaimed, Eureka! when he stepped into a bath and noticed that the water level rose he suddenly understood that the volume of water displaced must be equal to the volume of the part of his body he had submerged. This meant that the volume of irregular objects could be calculated with precision, a previously intractable problem. He is said to have been so eager to share his realization that he leapt out of his bathtub and ran through the streets of Syracuse naked. The story goes that a king at the time, Hiero II of Syracuse, wanted a gold crown but didnt trust the goldsmith to use 100% gold. He needed a way of checking whether or not the crown was indeed all gold. Archimedes insight led to the solution of a problem posed by Hiero of Syracuse, on how to assess the purity of an irregular golden crown. Equipment for weighing objects already existed, and now that Archimedes could also measure volume, their ratio would give the objects density, an important indicator of purity. Archimedes was able to determine how much water should be displaced for a crown made of gold for a given size and weight. The crown was designed as a gift to the gods in the shape of a wreath and therefore could not be disturbed. Archimedes ultimately concluded that the goldsmith had substituted some gold with silver in making the crown. Galen (131-201 BC) Galen, a Roman citizen, is widely considered to be the first team physician in history. His essay De Motu Musculorum is the first textbook on kinesiology. In this book he distinguished the difference between motor and sensory nerves, described agonist and antagonist muscle relationships, described tonus, and introduced terms diarthrosis and synarthrosis. Galen believed and taught that the contractions of muscles are a result of the passing of animal spirits from the brain through the nerves of the muscles. Some writers suggest that along with Galen being the first author of a textbook on kinesiology that he also is considered as the father of sports medicine. Da Vinci (1452-1519 AD) We all know of Leonardo Da Vinci for his great works of art. But his contributions in the field of kinesiology are also noteworthy. Following the works of Galen, kinesiology and biomechanics lay pretty much untouched until the 15th century when Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519 AD) advanced our knowledge further. As an artist, engineer and scientist, he was mainly interested in the structure of the human body as it relates to performance, center of gravity and the balance and center of resistance. Da Vinci was the first to record scientific data on the human gait. He used letters to identify muscles and nerves in the human body that he would retrieve from graveyards in the middle of the night. In his collection of human gait data, he described the mechanics of the body during standing, walking uphill and downhill, rising from a sitting position, and jumping. In order to demonstrate the progression action and interaction of various muscles during movement, he developed theories on the func tional anatomy by attaching cords to a skeleton at the origin and insertion points of the muscles. His theories and teachings remain commonplace and true to this day. Galileo (1564-1643 AD) Galileo followed Da Vinci, and was the first to propose the Law or Inertia, or what is better known as Newtons First Law. His theoretical and experimental work on the bodies of motion was a precursor of the classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileos Principle of Inertia stated: A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed. It was this principle that was later incorporated into Newtons laws of motion. The basic framework for Newtons laws of motion also came from Galileos basic principle of relativity, in which he stated that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. Galileo was also very well recognized as the founder of classical mechanics and the applications of variables such as space, time and velocity. He determined the correct mathematical law for acceleration: the total distance covered (starting from rest) is proportional to the square of the time. Galileo also concluded that objects will retain their velocity unless a force or friction acts upon them. Galileo was a little contraindicated in his thinking and strongly defended heliocentrism; the belief that the sun is at the center of the solar system. Because of his belief in this theory, he claimed it was not contrary to the Scripture passages, and in 1616 he traveled to Rome to try and persuade the Catholic Church authorities not to ban and criticize his ideas. Galileo forged on and in 1632 published his book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. As a result Galileo lost much support and became alienated and admonished by the church. Rome supported by one of its biggest and most powerful defenders, Pope Paul V, put Galileo on trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633. As a result Galileo spent the remainder of his life under house arrest albeit back in his home near Florence. It was during this time that he dedicated his time to one of his greatest works, Two New Sciences. In these writings he summarized on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials. The book received great praise from Sir Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein in later years. As a result of this work Galileo is often referred to as the father of modern physics. As an interesting side note, by the time Galileo started to write his new sciences text he was blind! Borelli (1608-1679 AD) Giovanni Borelli was a Renaissance Italian physiologist, physicist and mathematician. As a student of Galileo he contributed to the modern principle of scientific investigation through continuing the testing of hypotheses against observation. His largest achievements are those specifically related to his investigation into biomechanics. His studies originated with the biomechanics of animals. Borelli was the author of De Motu Animalium I and II, although he did not live to see the publication of this work. Borelli first suggested that muscles do not exercise vital movement otherwise than by contracting. And he was also the first to deny corpuscular influence on the movements of muscles. He demonstrated this by using scientific experiments to show that living muscle do not release corpuscles into water when cut. He also discovered that forward motion requires movement of the bodys center of gravity, with a swinging of the limbs in order to maintain ones balance. Since it seems that everyone gets a title, Borelli is labeled as the father of modern biomechanics. Newton (1642-1727 AD) Newton was/is arguably the most influential scientist in history. Newton published one of the most influential and original pieces of scientific hypotheses called Principia Mathematica Philosophae Naturalis. Published in 1686, it is a three-volume work containing the statements of Newtons laws of motion. His three laws comprise the foundation for modern dynamics, which express the relationships between the interaction of forces and their outcomes. Newtons laws can be summarized as follows: Law of Inertia: Every body continues in its state of rest or motion, in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by interacting forces impressed upon it (originally proposed by Galileo). Law of Momentum (Force = Mass x Acceleration): The change of motion is proportional to the motivational force applied and occurs in the direction of the right line in which that force is applied. Law of Interaction: For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction. The application of these three laws can be best demonstrated using an example of the mechanics of a discus thrower. While the thrower is pivoting, he must grasp the disc firmly (exert centripetal force) to prevent it from flying out of his hand. In accordance with the third law, the discus exerts an equal and opposite reaction (centrifugal force). When the discus thrower releases his grip the centripetal force no longer interacts with the discus and the object flies in a direct line similar to its former circular path. The distance that the discus covers is proportionate to the motive force placed upon it, in accordance with the second law. The trajectory of the discus is affected by gravity, wind, velocity, and other forces that may alter its state of motion, as stated by the first law. According to Newton, changes of motion are generally considered as a measure of the force that produces them. This is where the idea of measuring force by the product of mass and acceleration originated from. So, therefore, the greater the speed in which the discus thrower spins, the greater the acceleration that will be applied to the mass of the discus, and therefore the farther it will fly before gravity returns it back to earth, and the greater the force to have been applied to the discus. Hunter (1728-1793 AD) John Hunter was instrumental in summarizing the current state of knowledge in the field at that time. His lecture series summarized all that was known about kinesiology at the end of the 18th century, emphasizing that muscular function could be studied only by observations of living person. In these lecture series Hunter defined muscular function in major detail, including the origin and insertion and shapes of muscles, two-joint muscle problems, contraction and relaxation, strength, hypertrophy, the mechanical arrangement of muscle fibers along with many other aspects of the study. Hunter declared that muscle, while endowed with life, is fitted for self-motion, and is the only part of the body so fitted. Thus we can see a rich and detailed history of big names exists that have played a role in our field of study. Their contributions laid the foundations for early study and advancement. All in all knowledge progressed slowly for a long time and it wasnt until advances in measurement technology such as cameras and computers that more large and innovative steps were made. Recent Advancements in Research Research in the field of kinesiology and sport biomechanics has steadily increased throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. This increase in popularity is due in large part to the ease of data collection and analysis of films and video cameras by way of the evolution of modernizing digital cameras. Of course the creation of computers has been monumental. In the past two decades research in exercise and sports science and mechanics has been much more thoroughly covered. All kinds of movements, both sporting and non-sporting, have been recorded, digitized, analyzsed, and as a result new forms of movement have evolved. All made possible by the camera. Pioneer Cinematographers Today, many Kinesiologists use cinematography to record sports and exercise movements that need to be reviewed and analyzed. This allows them to break down the biomechanics of the motion and therefore make the necessary changes to improve the athletes performance. Cinematography is from the Greek words kinesis (movement) and grapho (to record). Modern technology literally allows the collection of thousands of data points within seconds providing volumes of information on very specific phases of movement. Muybridge (1831-1904 AD) Eadweard Muybridge was an English photographer who was well known for his early use of cameras to capture motion, particularly in horses and horse racing which was very popular at the time. Advancement of knowledge concerning body mechanics was greatly advanced by Muybridges works using serial photography. Using cinematographic pictures to study human motion was highly recommended by an astronomer who had once used serial photos for other research studies. Although recommended to use photography to study human movement, Muybridges passion was in horses. In 1882 Muybridge produced the book The Horse in Motion and in 1887 he wrote Animal Locomotion in eleven volumes, in which several of his photographic sequences were published. Muybridges work and photographs projected images allowing everyone to see real stances in real movements. His work and photography provided the first insights into specific phase of movement. Marey (1830-1904 AD) Etienne-Jules Marey is widely considered to be a pioneer of photography. It was through his photographs that he studied the movement of the body. He was convinced that movement was the most important of human functions and that all other functions were merely support in order to accomplish a specific movement. He described and photographed these methods for his research and work which he recorded in his books Du Mouvement Dans Les Fonctions de La Vie and Le Mouvement in 1894. These photographic techniques opened way for further experimental studies and are still considered a major importance in the study of human gait. Mareys work also revolutionized aspects of medicine, particularly cardiology, where his photography was used to show the movement of blood. This knowledge was ultimately developed into chronophotography. What is interesting that Marey (a Frenchman) and Muybridge (an Englishman) benefited a lot from each others work as there own obsessions set about to confirm that each other was indeed correct with their theories. When Marey published La Machine Animale in 1873 (translated as Animal Mechanism) Muybridge carried out his Photographic Investigation in Palo Alto, California, to test Mareys hypotheses and ultimately proved that Marey was right when he wrote that a galloping horse for a brief moment had all four hooves off the ground thus settling a dispute between walking and running or more correctly cantering and galloping. Muybridge published his photos in 1879 with some public attention. Understanding the Importance of Kinesiology in Everyday Life Today there are many different forms of specialized Kinesiology and more are being introduced as new more specific areas of study evolve. From a biomechanical perspective, we take on ambitious tasks daily that require strength, force, balance and discipline in addition to many other mechanical functions of the body. With the vast array of daily movements people need help in improving human movement. Kinesiology requires the knowledge of why and how the human body moves. It is an important science in solving the problems of human movement and the skills necessary to perform the movements effectively and safely. The Equipment Design Revolution There is hardly an area of sports or exercise that has not been affected by the combination field of kinesiology and materials. In fact, you can now study this area of sports equipment design as a university degree. One could argue that no matter what area of sport and exercise you select new materials and kinesiological studies have changed the game. Consider the following: Safety helmets have benefited from new plastics. Protective padding is better with new foams and lighter plastics. Bicycles are lighter and stronger with new carbons. Tennis rackets are lighter and more powerful with carbon and titanium (as are golf clubs). Safety straps use Velcro. Lighter metals make up components on bats, bikes and skis. New rubbers and plastics are used in new playing surfaces. Running shoes are lighter, breathe more and more elastic. Balls spin more, have more grip, and come in many colors. We could continue with this list for a long time constantly identifying areas of improvement both in performance and safety. More people can now participate in sports because new equipment has made is safer and easier. For example, consider new shaped skis (photo) that have made it easier to turn and stop on difficult terrain. We have oversized golf clubs that allow us to hit the ball straighter and further. No area is left unaffected. Even more remarkable is that kinesiology and materials study has made it possible to people with no legs or arms to run, jump and play racquet sports. Research Note: The Olympic Games in 1896 were for able-bodied athletes. The Paralympics began in 1948 when Sir Ludwig Guttman organized a sports event for WWII veterans who had a spinal cord injury. The first competition was in Stoke, England. Four years later the Dutch joined in and the movement began. At the Rome Olympics in 1960 the movement expanded to include other disabilities and was called the Paralympics. In 1976, the first Paralympic winter games took place in Sweden. In 2008 in Beijing, over 4000 Paralympians competed. Many of their performances have been made possible by our field of study. So not only are humans with no legs running, in some cases they are outperforming able-bodied athletes. In 1992, Joe Gaetani, a paraplegic, set new world records in 100m (12.23 secs) and 200m (26.82 secs) in the Paralympics. Gaetanis legs were made from a new composite material of carbon fiber and epoxy pylon. The flexibility and weight of these materials is far superior to traditional wood or metal. At the same games Tony Volpentest won gold in the 100m and 200m even though hew was born with no feet. Of course much of the advancement in materials has come from the engineering field and then gets translated and applied into the sports field by kinesiologists. However, it is the overall collaborative effort that allows for these impressive advances. There is perhaps no area that has benefited more than athlete safety. Improving Safety If you have ever watched an old football movie you will remember that the helmets were made of leather. Old cycling helmets were made from foam and rubber. There was no molding for correct fit. Mouthguards are now custom fitted, as are lenses, ski boots, skates, etc. All these design features improve participant safety and comfort. Equipment can now be designed to not only fit better by considering body dimensions but also perform and protect better under stress. Shoulder pads flex and move like shoulders; football pants have padding in specific locations; shin guards can cover the knee and allow flexion, etc. The field of kinesiology has been instrumental in the design and assessment of these advances, allowing for both greater comfort and safety. Thus it is easier to understand that a student in this field has limitless options to apply their skills. Consider this: anytime someone builds a product you wear, sit in or ride on, you must consider body anthropometrics. Thus our knowled ge and skills are widely applied. Sample Problem Solving in Kinesiology In problem solving approaches to kinesiology and biomechanics, the desired relies on proper decision making to allow for comfort and safety as the outcome. This approach to good decision making includes one that is efficient, systematic and structured. If one can define part of the problem in biomechanical terms, one could better describe the outcome of the movement and therefore increase the positive outcome of their performance. Look at the following questions that all ask relevant questions you might be asked to answer. How can an athletic shoe be designed to reduce injuries on artificial turf? How do forces summate to produce maximum power in a golf swing? What is the best anatomical posture for sprinter running the 400 meter dash? What is the best body position for swimming the breaststroke? At what angle should a discus or javelin be thrown to achieve maximum distance? What is the best shape for an aerodynamic helmet to reduce drag? These are all examples of questions that relate to the kinematic characteristics of pure human movement and the mechanics involved. As we have already identified kinematics spans both quantitative and qualitative types of analysis. Quite often your problem solving ability will require the application of both quantitative and qualitati

Abortion :: essays research papers

As of right now, abortion is legal in all nine months of the pregnancy for any reason. This controversial issue is a question of how important the value of life is. The turning point came in 1973 when the Supreme Court's decision in Roe vs. Wade saying, that women have the right to murder an innocent child only up to 24 weeks . This false perception is fueled part by groups supporting abortion rights and it is then uncritically unaccepted by the media. The fact is that the current law allows a woman to get an abortion for any reason she deems necessary.It seems ironic that a people can get so emotional when it comes to animal rights, yet see no wrong in ripping a developed baby from the protection of the mother. It is not the child's fault that he or she was conceived. Some people argue that the developing is not technically a child yet because it cannot live on its own. Most of the procedures in murdering the growing child can be painful to the baby and be harmful to the mother. So how can we as a nation make sure criminals are executed painlessly and let children be murdered by extremely painful measures. At 18 days after conception, a baby's heart is already beating, and at 6 weeks, brain waves can be measured. At 8 weeks, the stomach, liver, and kidneys are functioning, and the fingerprints have formed. At 9 weeks, the baby can feel pain . Here are some methods of early abortion:Vacuum Curettage: powerful suction tube inserted through the cervix and into the womb. The unborn child is torn apart by the force of the suction; the fetal body parts and placenta are sucked into a jar. Possible complications include infection, cervical laceration and uterine perforation. Mifepristone: also known as RU-486, the chemical causes an abortion by interfering with the function of the placenta, starving the unborn child to death. Prostaglandins are then administered to expel the fetus. This method of abortion takes place over the span of several days; the average woman using it bleeds heavily for more than nine days, but some women have bled for over four weeks. Mifepristone is just beginning to be used in the US. Long-term health risks are not yet known. Methotrexate: though not approved by the FDA for this use, a methotrexate injection kills the unborn child by interfering with the growth process (cell division).

Human Rights Violations Essay

Why are Human Rights being violated in the world? Human rights are rights that allow people to have property, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. These rights should be given the day we are born and should be respected. Human rights violations have happened till the present day around the world, in Rwanda with a genocide, in Uganda with the abuse and abduction of children, and in N. Korea with the mistreat of its people. Human rights are being violated because of power, greed, and a corrupt government. The first human violation we will examine is in Rwanda during April-June, 1994. The Hutus killed almost 1,000,000 Tutsis in a period of 100 days, creating one of the largest genocides in history. After the conquer of Belgium on Rwanda, the groups living there, the Hutus and the Tutsis, have disliked each other. Belgium created I.D. Cards to differentiate the Hutus and the Tutsis. Belgium considered the Tutsis to be superior for many years. The Hutus hated that fact and therefore hated the Tutsis. After Belgium left Hutus took over the country and treated the Tutsis like â€Å"roaches†. It was then when the genocide started. Because the Tutsis were superior to the Hutus, they had better jobs and better education. After the takeover of the the Hutus, their hate for the Tutsis increased and they treated them really bad and blamed them for every bad thing. Years later the Hutu president was killed on an airplane explosion. This created a great impact on the Hutus and they obviously blamed the Tutsis. This is when Hutus started to kill as many Tutsis as they could. Tutsis had no chance to fight against the Hutus. The U.N. tried to get involved , but wasn’t worth it because they had really small troops and were not allowed to shoot anyone, in other words, the U.N. could not stop the genocide from happening. After the death of 10 of its people, the U.N. ordered all the whites to leave the country and leaving the Tutsis without hope. Not many Tutsis survived after this terrible genocide. Finally, Kigali, the general leading the Hutus, was captured and everything changed for the Tutsis. Soon after Kigali was captured, the life of the Tutsis became better. The Hutu rebels were kicked out and left Rwanda. Rwanda is now ruled by a Tutsi-led government. The Tutsis and the Hutus still experience conflicts with each other even though they do not share the same communities anymore,this is why Tutsi rebels stay active because their afraid that another genocide will happen. The second human right violation we will examine is in Uganda. The LRA, led by Joseph Kony, has committed one of the worst human rights violation which is the violation against the right of the children since 1987 till present day. He abducts the children to make them soldiers and makes the girls be sex slaves. Even though many people are trying to find Kony, he manages to escape and hide, plus other armies won’t attack him because his army is made up of thousands of children. Children in Uganda live in the fear of being abducted away from their families. The children never feel secure wherever they are. When Kony abducts the children, he sometimes makes them kill their own parents. Kony has been doing this terrible violation because he wants more power and wants to expand his army. Nearly all the people in his army were abducted. Children that are caught trying to escape are severely punished and sometimes killed. Kony calls himself a good Christian and wants to create a government that follows the 10 commandments of the bible, but over 20 years many people have feared his â€Å"Christian movement† because he has killed thousands of people through central Africa. No one has been able to capture Kony, but the UN helps children that mange to escape from the hands of Kony. Kony’s terrible actions such as the abduction of children to make them soldiers or sex-slaves, the destruction of beneficial places for the people, and the murder of thousands of people have made Kony the #1most wanted rebel leader in the world. It is a very big risk to fight against Kony because there are many children that were forced to be in his army and these people don’t want to kill them. In February, 2012, a campaign called â€Å"Invisible Children† was created trying to stop Kony from doing this horrible violations. This campaign let thousand of people know about Kony and his lord’s resistance army so people could help convince the American government to help Uganda and other countries in Africa to capture Kony, unfortunately, the US couldn’t send troops but they did send a group of people to train the Ugandan army to be ready for Kony and capture him. Without the help of Jason Russell, No one would have known about Kony and no one would ever help those poor children living in fear. The last human rights violation we will examine is in North Korea. Kim Jong Un, the new ruler of North Korea has forgotten about his people and worried more about his weapons. He spends more money on weapons than he does on food for the people, letting several people starve to death. Kim Jong is in his 20’s and has ruled only for 4 months. He launched a rocket to celebrate his grandfather’s birthday and to celebrate his entrance as the third generation of the dynasty. He spent about $850 million just to launch this rocket, that’s enough money to buy corn to feed the people for a whole year. The US canceled the agreement that it had with North Korea to provide emergency food aid because of that rocket launch. This decision by the US didn’t seem to affect much North Korea at all. The reason is that North Korea, with its corrupt government, rather have a secure country with advanced military than to feed the people. North Korea spends more money on its military than any other country in the world, it spends 23% of its gross domestic products. Even soldiers suffer of malnutrition, so if the soldiers who are the most important people in the country suffer of this, then the rest of the people must be dying of starvation. Several of the North Korean soldiers suffer of stunted growth because of the lack of nutrients of the country. The people of North Korea, starve because they cannot afford to buy food, because the small portions of food there is in the country are really expensive and most of the people do not have enough money to buy it, the can barely afford really tiny portions. In a orphanage children had not eaten any protein for over a month, not only the people are suffering, but the children are too, and they are the future of that country. Finally the Chinese government decided to help North Korea and provide them with food. This corrupt government led by Kim Jong Un has to stop because it is affecting not only the people but the future for the country which is the children. The genocide in Rwanda, the children abduction and abuse by Kony in Uganda, and the starvation of the people in North Korea are examples of the terrible Human Rights violations that occur in the world till the present day. Wanting power, being greedy, and having a corrupt government have led to these unacceptable violations of the human rights. We just examined only three human rights violations, but who knows what else can be happening in this world.

Smoking is very Glamorous Essay Example

Smoking is very Glamorous Essay Example Smoking is very Glamorous Paper Smoking is very Glamorous Paper A Poster is as defined in the Oxford dictionary a placard posted or displayed in a public place as an announcement or advertisement. The aim of a poster is to sell a product, or to get a point of view across to a large target audience. The posters produced usually fall into 3 main genres, informative, Political and commercial purposes.  Posters usually can make a huge impact on its audience by grabbing attention through laughter, protest or questions. To achieve a maximum target audience they are placed in public areas e.g. very busy roads and streets on billboards, on the public transport system London Underground, Buses, trains, cinemas, factories, shops and shopping areas. Over the years posters have had to evolve the designs and the vocabulary. Also they have had to take into consideration the current environmental and social issues that are particularly sensitive. A very good example of this is the old Bovril advert where a bull is looking into a jar of Bovril mourning the loss of his brother. For now that would appear distasteful to vegetarians and those concerned with animal rights and animal welfare. Bovril is still advertised but in a far more appropriate manner. Modern posters have not only evolved with social and environmental issues but also in their designs graphically and imagery. This is due too much more advanced technology for print, photography, 3d, rotation and lightening.  Fig 1 Fig 2  Poster 1  Smoking is very Glamorous  This is one of a series of posters produced in USA by the American Cancer Society, which stresses the consequences of smoking. This poster (fig 2) has a picture of a person I use the term a person, as it is very difficult to identify whether it is a male or female, this person is possibly elderly and has large bags under their eyes and is very wrinkled. They are portraying an ugly, dirty person who has smoked all their life. In their hand is a cigarette, which they are taking a long hard drag on. This image is depicting a very dirty image, which according to the wording is meant to be glamorous. I feel that this is implying that smoking is a disgusting and dirty habit. The wording underneath is written to be sarcastic saying smoking is very glamorous it is using a play on the words as from this picture you actually get a completely different message you can clearly see that smoking is not at all glamorous. This poster is very effective as you read the words first because they really stand out and then the image hits you and makes you really think, it is quite a depressing image, subtly displaying the effects of ageing and ill health all consequences of long term smoking. It certainly has the capabilities of making an impact and grabbing the target audiences attention. It has created the image from the originator to the recipient that it is not really as glamorous as some people have said and that it can kill you. Since the age of Jazz, Hollywood portrayed the image of smoking as the thing to do to look glamorous as can be seen in the advert in fig 1, so when this advert appeared in the 1970s it contradicted that image with huge effect. Poster 2  This drink has been rated for mature audiences only  Fig 3  I have chosen this poster to look at as it is on the other side of Health issues and that is promoting alcohol. Promoting alcohol is a very sensitive subject as people are much more health consious and concerned about health issues and like cigaretttes alcohol is an addictive drug the root of all evil. Here (fig3) this is the Dewars Scotch advert for the drink Absolute Vodka. You can see an attractive women on the top holding a tray with glasses of drink probably vodka on it clearly happy and enjoying her self. Underneath her is a bottle of the vodka tighly secure in a chain, padlock and key with the words This drink has been rated for mature audiences only. At first sight this advert is giving the message to the recipient to discourage them from under age drinking. I feel that the alcohol industry does not want the under age to drink but it does want to promote a positive attitude towards drink before they start drinking. This advert is I feel one of those from the originator aimed at those adolescents who are anxious to enter into adult life by almost encouraging them with the words This drink has been rated for mature audiences only As stated in the Advertising Age product image is probably the most important element in selling liquor Dewars Scotch ran this advert as part of its successful long running campaign for Absolut vodka managing to create that image. As you can see in the poster it focuses on the shape of the bottle and the word Absolut I think they are trying to promate it as absolut perfection hence why the bottle is set in a halo. What the chains symbolise I am not sure but I do feel if that you are a problem drinker you will be chained to that bottle. I do feel that this advert is aimed at the image, and making that image of drinking sexy. I do feel that this is not good for the future of our generation the children and adolescents. Cigarettes have to carry a Government Health warning and are limited to where and how the adverts are displayed and I do feel that alcohol should be treated the same, rather than promted as sexy like the cigarettes were up to world war two.

Free Essays on Muscle Cars

The first road vehicle was built in Scotland in 1839. The vehicle was powered by electricity and was built by Robert Anderson. In later years, he became unsuccessful. The first vehicle built was in 1892 and was a prototype for modern cars. The car went at a top speed of 15 miles per hour and covered 750 miles in 48 hours. America had the most success on electric cars and steamers than any other country. Twenty different car companies spread through the U.S. in 1912. Steamers began to be more popular and over 100 plants were making steamers. The Stanley brother’s factory in Newton, Massachusetts was the most famous (â€Å"Automotive History† 20). People began to do experiments on automobiles with gasoline fuel. Etienne Lenoir invented the first internal combustion engine that was run by coal gas. Then he connected it up to a carriage and the experiment worked (â€Å"Automotive History† 22). Young people fixed up old coupes and roadsters. They installed V-8’s in their vehicles, which started the muscle car era in the early 1960’s. The mentality and the attitude of the public understood muscle cars. Teens made their cars into hot rods and low riders after World War II. Many people hung dice from their mirrors. Young buyers influenced major car companies because they did not want to drive their father’s Oldsmobile. Factories began offering police interceptor engines, which made cars faster than anything on the showroom floor. Many of the cars were full size sedans. Bragging rights and who had the fastest car was all about the muscle car era. The 1963  ½ Galaxie factory lightweight, Chevrolet Biscayne, and Mo-pars Max-Wedge 426 were considered to be the father of muscle cars. These vehicles could bring a family of six to the races (â€Å"Origin of Muscle Cars† 2). Muscle car is a vehicle made to perform like a racecar and may even look like one. It’s designed to accelerate quick and is used on regular road... Free Essays on Muscle Cars Free Essays on Muscle Cars The first road vehicle was built in Scotland in 1839. The vehicle was powered by electricity and was built by Robert Anderson. In later years, he became unsuccessful. The first vehicle built was in 1892 and was a prototype for modern cars. The car went at a top speed of 15 miles per hour and covered 750 miles in 48 hours. America had the most success on electric cars and steamers than any other country. Twenty different car companies spread through the U.S. in 1912. Steamers began to be more popular and over 100 plants were making steamers. The Stanley brother’s factory in Newton, Massachusetts was the most famous (â€Å"Automotive History† 20). People began to do experiments on automobiles with gasoline fuel. Etienne Lenoir invented the first internal combustion engine that was run by coal gas. Then he connected it up to a carriage and the experiment worked (â€Å"Automotive History† 22). Young people fixed up old coupes and roadsters. They installed V-8’s in their vehicles, which started the muscle car era in the early 1960’s. The mentality and the attitude of the public understood muscle cars. Teens made their cars into hot rods and low riders after World War II. Many people hung dice from their mirrors. Young buyers influenced major car companies because they did not want to drive their father’s Oldsmobile. Factories began offering police interceptor engines, which made cars faster than anything on the showroom floor. Many of the cars were full size sedans. Bragging rights and who had the fastest car was all about the muscle car era. The 1963  ½ Galaxie factory lightweight, Chevrolet Biscayne, and Mo-pars Max-Wedge 426 were considered to be the father of muscle cars. These vehicles could bring a family of six to the races (â€Å"Origin of Muscle Cars† 2). Muscle car is a vehicle made to perform like a racecar and may even look like one. It’s designed to accelerate quick and is used on regular road...

Hume and the Problem of Induction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Hume and the Problem of Induction - Essay Example It is possible that a piece of food will poison the individual even though it has never poisoned him or her in the past. Therefore, the individual has weaken his or her conclusion by claiming that probably the piece of food is not going to poison him or her. The statement is true concerning the statement of psychological conviction. The question that rings is, Is It rationally justifiable in any sense of objective? Therefore, it can be said that any form of inductive argument and reasoning is only reliable when the outcome or the conclusion from the statement is almost true most of the time. According to Hume, if at all there were any of such arguments it will be simple enumerative induction. Hume himself does not use the concept of induction. In any case, whatever has come to be called the problem of induction has come down to everyone. Hume problem of induction is into two different parts. The first part is the descriptive problem. In this part, it explains how human’s beings are able to form opinions out of fact matters that are unobserved. The second part is the normative section. The second part tries to answer the question of whether the beliefs that are in such ways are justified. Hume’s tries to answer questions of life on whether individuals who reason out just the same way people do, have the reason to believe on his or her conclusions, on the parts of nature he or she knows nothing about and has not observed (Sloman and Lagnado, pg. 95). The first claim of Hume is negative: a priori cannot be from any knowledge that is not observed. Rather the priori must be derived from the knowledge that has been gained through observation and experience. Imagine an individual who has never heard about snow leave alone seeing it. For the first, he or she is shown a snowball and asked to make a prediction even before he or she has touched it, whether it will be hot or cold.

Catholicism in Medieval Europe Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Catholicism in Medieval Europe - Essay Example Before starting to discuss the topic of the essay, it should be beneficial to point out the main statements, met in literature as for the possible impact, which religion may create on the economic development of any country. When considering the Bible as a complex social and ethical teachings, it is necessary to account, that it does not contain any 'definite system of theoretical and practical knowledge',1 but only the essential features of faith and morality are described; the Bible gives only the basis for behavioral patterns of human business life. The influence of Catholicism on the dynamics of the market system development can not be unilaterally evaluated. The development of capitalism in Italy, Spain, Portugal and the related countries, has happened much later in comparison with the other countries of Western Europe. The explanation to this phenomenon researchers find in the long-lasting Muslim influence in Spain and Portugal.2 Catholicism was noted as the religion, which was able to quickly react to the changing reality, but we are here to consider the possibility of Catholicism as religion influencing the economic development of the Western European countries before 1570, and though the thesis of close connection between religion and economic development is now subjected to fair criticism, it can't be denied that during the period of pre-Industrialism Catholicism as religion has created considerable effect on the way people were living and working, creating the general product and defining the direction of economic development of their countries.3 As far as the data about the economic development of pre-Industrial Europe is scarce, it would be better to base the evaluation of the economic state at that time and the impact of religious allegiance on that state through the notions of urban population growth and looking closer at the situation with real wages by 1570. Real wages may become the very factor, which will lead us to the conclusion, but exact numbers are absent and we may only take into consideration the aspects of growth or decrease in these wages in comparison to other non-catholic countries of Europe.4 The growth of urban population also presupposes the higher economic prosperity of the certain European countries. It should be noted here, that the northern parts of Europe, which were characterized by the development of Protestantism, were by that time not very well economically developed, due to the scanty population and lacking economic ties between the countries of that region; this has little to do with the impa ct of religion, but it should be noted, that the notions of Catholicism have ultimately defined the way Southern European countries were going in their economic development. It is also necessary to say, that historically the period of European development before 1570 was closely connected with social tension and economic underachievement - facing the consequences of the plague epidemic and crisis of the agrarian production.5 The workers who had traditionally been involved into agriculture, had to leave their places and arrive to cities, where they were hardly been able to find a place of constant employment. The cities by that time were well-developed as the separate units of each state, and had enough amount of autonomy, thus